Hiroko Uehara, center, became the first female mayor in Tokyo in the last unified local elections in April.

When a political system in which politicians represent vested interests rather than the public good is combined with a family system that expects women to play a subordinate role, it is hard for women to enter politics, according to Satomi Nakajima.

Nakajima is head of the secretariat of Women's Solidarity Foundation, a Tokyo-based civic group established last year to promote participation by women in politics.

Running in elections requires much money, and women traditionally do not have independent financial means, Nakajima said.

"Many politicians represent not local residents, but instead the powers that be in their communities," said Nakajima, a former member of the city assembly of Tokorozawa, Saitama Prefecture.

More than 50 percent of local assemblies do not have a single assemblywoman. Women serve as mayors in only six out of the nation's more than 3,200 municipal governments, and there are no female prefectural governors.

The traditional family system remains strong, as witnessed during a debate last month at a House of Councillors committee meeting on a bill to promote sexual equality, which was passed this month.

A 52-year-old member of the Liberal Democratic Party said: "I welcome the move to encourage all to become full members of society. But if that becomes a trend and women--including my wife--do not return home until very late and if I have to wash my own clothes, iron my own shirts and make my own meals, that will mean the breakdown of my family. So it is important to recognize the contributions of housewives."

Japan remains a society segregated according to gender. In 1971, women earned an average 51 percent of what men did. Today, the figure has risen to only 60 percent--despite enforcement of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law in 1986 and its revision this year.

Civil law remains unchanged, so that a married woman effectively has no choice but to use her husband's surname, although many working women are opposed to this.

Gerd Larsson, a correspondent for the Swedish business daily Dagens Industri, has been living in Japan for 30 years and considers the three decades a "lost opportunity" for the women's rights movement in Japan.

"I am not saying that there has been no improvement in women's political, social and economic participation. But more progress should have been made. Yes, I am disappointed," she said.

In her eyes, Japanese women lack the courage to assume economic responsibility, with many women working just to supplement the incomes of their husbands. In Sweden, women feel more responsible financially, which gives them a stronger sense of independence, she said. In Sweden, women occupy half of the seats in the Cabinet and 44 percent of seats in the parliament.

The system that developed after World War II to achieve economic growth resulted in rigid roles for men and women. Men became "corporate warriors," while women stayed at home to look after the children and do housework. The tax, pension and welfare systems have all been created on the assumption that men go out to work and women work at home.

While women were making great strides in Sweden and other industrial countries in the 1970s, Japan was pursuing economic development, and the feminist movement was generally ridiculed by the media and the public, according to Nakajima.

However, things are changing, albeit slightly.

As more and more women refuse to have children, the traditional family system is crumbling, and this has alarmed government leaders.

"Japan is facing rapid changes, such as a declining birthrate and an aging population...It is crucial for Japan to achieve equal participation by women so that the country can remain affluent and active in the coming century...For the government, realization of a more gender-equal society is one of its top priorities," Chief Cabinet Secretary Hiromu Nonaka said at an upper house committee meeting debating the gender equality bill.

Some critics say that the declining birthrate--1.38 children per woman--is a silent protest by women who face too many demands and inadequate social support in bringing up children.

Another change can be found in the political structure. It is is slowly becoming more grass roots-based, with more of an emphasis on local autonomy, and this has made women more confident in their role in the community.

"I think women are better suited to managing local politics, because we actually live in the community. If you do not know a community, you cannot formulate necessary policies or set appropriate political goals," said Kunitachi Mayor Hiroko Uehara, who became the first female mayor in Tokyo in the April elections. "Men are simply invisible in the community," she said.

A growing number of women are beginning to complain about being underrepresented in politics. Earlier this month, more than 400 women, led by former Education Minister Ryoko Akamatsu, launched Women in New World, International Network (WIN WIN), a nationwide network to back female candidates, modeled after EMILY's List in the United States.

Many of the social challenges that Japan faces, such as the aging population and declining birthrate, may turn out to be blessings in disguise if they allow Japan to become a bit more "normal" in terms of gender equality.